Onychomycosis
Review
Keywords:
ONYCHOMYCOSISAbstract
Onychomycosis is a fingernails or toenails disease. Fungis committed are dermatophytes, yeast and nondermato-phyte mould. It is a frequent disease with impact at emotional, social, and economical levels.
The paper revised clinical and epidemiological features of onychomycosis and causing agents. An updated of diagnosis and treatment management is also included since primary clinical difficulties are seen at this level.
Finally the importance of mycological diagnosis and the roles of laboratories and specialists in the diagnostic determination are highlighted; treatment guidelines are listed.
References
1) Midgley G, Moore Mk. Onychomycosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 1998; 15:113-7.
2) Deenning DW, Evans EG, Kibbler CC, Richardson MD, Roberts MM, Rogers TR, et al. Fortnigthly Review:Fungal nail disease:a guide to good practice, report of a Working Group of the British Society for Medical Mycology. BMJ 1995; 311:1277-81.
3) Rippon JW. Dermatofitosis y dermatomicosis. In:Rippon JW, ed. Tratado de Micología Médica, ed. México:Interamericana, 1990:186-298.
4) Gentles JC, Evans EG. Infection of the feet and nails with Hendersonula toruloidea. Sabouraudia 1970; 8:72-5.
5) Campbell CK, Mulder JL. Skin and nail infection by Scytalidium hyalinum. Sabouraudia 1977; 15(2):161-6.
6) Torres-Rodríguez JM. Actualización del diagnóstico micológico de las dermatomicosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 1986; 3(1):9-17.
7) Rubio-Calvo D, Rezusta-López A, Grasa-Jordan MP. Micopatología ungueal. Estudio micológico de las micosis y tiña unguium. Rev Iberoam Micol 1988; 5:90-9.
8) Gupta AK, Lambert J. Pharmaeconomic analysis of the new antifungal agents used to treat toenail onychomycosis in the USA. Int J Dermatol 1999; 38(2):53-64.
9) Joish VN, Armstrong EP. Newer drugs and overall costs of treating onychomycosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 2002; 19:130-2.
10) Lubeck DP. Measuring health-related quality of life in onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38(5):64-8.
11) Scher RK. Onychomycosis is more than a cosmetic problem. Br J Dermatol 1994; 130(43):15.
12) Sais G, Jucgla A, Peyri J. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in Spain:a cross-septional study. Br J Dermatol 1995; 132:758-61.
13) Roberts DT. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in the United Kingdom:Results of an omnibus survey. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126 (39):23-7.
14) Heikkila H, Stubb S. The prevalence of onychomycosis in Finland. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133:699-703.
15) Elewski BE, Charif MA. Prevalence of onychomycosis in patients attempting a dermatology clinic in northeastern Ohio for other conditions. Arch Dermatol 1997; 133:1772-3.
16) Gupta AK, Jain HC, Lynde CW, Watteel GN, Summerbell RC. Prevalence and epidemiology of unsuspected onychomycosis in patients visiting dermatologist offices in Ontario, Canada a multicenter survey of 2001 patients. Int J Dermatol 1997; 36:783-7.
17) Gupta AK, Sibbald G, Lynde CW. Onycomychosis in childrens:Prevalence and treatment strategies. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:395-402.
18) Gupta AK, Chang P, Del Rosso JQ. Onichomycosis in childrens:prevalence and management. Pediatr Dermatol 1998; 15:464-71.
19) Ploysangam T, Lucky AW. Childhood white superficial onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum:Report of seven cases and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:29-32.
20) Rosseew D. Achllies foot screening project:preliminary results of patients screening by dermatologists. J Eur Acad Dermatol 1999; 12:6-9.
21) Haneke E. Fungal infections of the nail. Semin Dermatol 1991; 10:41-53.
22) Williams HC. The epidemiology of onychomycosis in Britain. Br J Dermatol 1993; 129:101-9.
23) Perea S, Ramos MJ, Garau M, González A, Noriega A, Del Palacio A. Prevalence and risk factors of tinea unguium and tinea pedis in the general population in Spain. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38(9):3226-30.
24) Bonasse J, Asconegui F, Conti-Díaz I. Estado actual de las dermatofitosis en Uruguay. Rev Arg Micol 1982; 5(2):29-31.
25) Ballesté R, Gezuele E, Veiga R. Frecuencia de dermatofitosis en Montevideo. Congreso de la Federación Latinoamericana de Parasitología, 10. Libro de resúmenes. Montevideo:FLAP, 1991:89.
26) Cabrera R, Bonasse J, Fazzio S, Viola M, Sapriza M. Micosis superficiales. Revisión. Congreso de la Federación Latinoamericana de Parasitología, 10. Libro de resúmenes. Montevideo:FLAP, 1991:94.
27) Ballesté R, Fernández N, Mousqués N, Xavier B, Arteta Z, Mernes M, et al. Dermatofitosis en población asistida en el Instituto de Higiene. Rev Med Uruguay 2000; 16:232-42.
28) Conti-Díaz I. Estudio micológico de 85 casos de onicopatías. An Fac Med Montevideo 1964; 49(5-6):535-40.
29) Gentles JC, Evans EG. Foot infections in swimming baths. BMJ 1973; 3:260-2.
30) English MP, Gibson MD. Studies in the epidemiology of tinea pedis-I. Tinea pedis in school children. BMJ 1959; i:1442-6.
31) English MP, Wethered RR, Duncan EH. Studies in the epidemiology tinea pedis-VIII. Fungal infection in a long stay hospital. BMJ 1967; iii:136-9.
32) Cribier B, Leiva-Mena M, Rey D. Nail changes in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol 1998; 134:1216-20.
33) Daniel CR, Norton NA, Scher RK. The spectrum of nail disease in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992; 27:93-7.
34) Arrese JE, Pierard Franchimond C, Pierard GE. Fatal hyphomycosis following Fusarium onychomycosis in an immunocompromised patient. Am J Dermatopathol 1996; 18:196-8.
35) Hay RJ. Fungal skyn infectionts. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:1065-7.
36) Summerbell RC. Epidemiology and ecology of onychomycosis. Dermatology 1997; 194(1):32-6.
37) Midgley G, Moore MK, Cook JC, Phan QG. Mycology of nail disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 31:68-74.
38) Nichols DSH, Midgley G. Onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton equinum. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989; 14:464-5.
39) Piraccini BM, Morelli R, Stinchi C, Tosti A. Proximal subungueal onychomycosis due to Microsporum canis. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134:175-7.
40) Mazon A, Salvo S, Vives R, Valcayo A, Sabalza MA. Etiologic and epidemiologic study of dermatomycoses in Navarra (Spain). Rev Iberoam Micol 1997; 14:65-8.
41) Elewski BE. Onychomycosis:pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998; 11(3):415-29.
42) Hazen K. New and emerging yeast pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995; 8(4):462-78.
43) Weems. Candida parasilopsis. Epidemiology, patogenicity, clinical manifestations and antimicrobial suceptibility. Clin Inf Dis 1993; 14:756-66.
44) Crozier WJ. Two cases of onychomycosis due to Candida zeylanoides. Aust J Dermatol 1993; 35:311-3.
45) Gargeya IB, Pruitt WR, Meyer SA, Aherarm DG. Candida haemulonii from clinical specimens in USA. J Med Vet Mycol 1991; 29:335-8.
46) Daniel CR, Elewski BE. Candida as a nail pathogen in healty patients. J MSMA 1995; 36(11):379-81.
47) Gentili L, Bouchara JP, Cimon B, Chabasse D. Candida ciferrii:clinical and microbiological features of an emerging pathogen. Mycoses 1991; 34:125-8.
48) Hoog GS de, Guarro J, Gene J, Figueras MJ. Atlas of Clinical Fungi. 2a. ed. The Netherlands-Spain:CBS/Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 2000.
49) D'Antonio D, Romano F, Iacone A, Violante B, Fazii P, Pontieri E, et al. Onychomycosis caused by Blastoschizomyces capitatus. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37(9):2927-30.
50) Mackinnon JE, Artagaveytia-Allende RC. Aspectos actuales de las moniliasis. An Fac Med Montevideo 1956; 41:275-92.
51) Calegari L, Conti-Díaz I, Civila E. Onicolisis por levaduras. Estudio micológico. Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Microbiologia, 9. Libro de resúmenes. Sao Paulo:ALAM-SBM, 1983:213.
52) Ashbee RH, Evans EG. Inmunology of disease associated with Malassezia species. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15(1):21-57.
53) Civila E, Conti-Díaz I, Vignale R, Calegari L. Onixis por Malassezia (Pityrosporum) ovalis. Med Cut Ibero Lat Am 1982; 10:343-6.
54) Crozier WJ, Wise kA. Onychomycosis due to Pityrosporum. Austral J Dermatol 1993; 34:109-12.
55) Silva V, Moreno GA, Zaror L, De Oliveira E, Fischman O. Isolation of Malassezia furfur from patient with onychomycosis. J Med Vet Micol 1997; 35:73-4.
56) Escobar Ml, Carmona-Fonseca J, Santamaria L. Onicomicosis por Malassezia. Rev Iberoam Micol 1999; 16:225-9.
57) Ellis DH, Marley JE, Watson AB, Williams TG. Significance of non-dermatophyte moulds and yeast in onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1994; 30(43):7-8.
58) Midgley G, Moore MK. Nail infections. Dermatol Clin 1996; 14:41-9.
59) Greer DL. Evolving role of nondermathophytes in onychomycosis. Int J Dermatol 1995; 34:521-4.
60) Oyeka CA, Gugnani HC. Keratin degradation by Scytalidium species and Fusarium solani. Mycoses 1997; 41:73-6.
61) Torres-Rodríguez JM, Balaguer-Meler J, Reixach A. Onychomycosis due to a fungus of the Aspergillus versicolor group. Mycoses 1988; 31:579-83.
62) Ellis DH, Watson AB, Marley JE, Williams TG. Non dermathpytes in onychomycosis of the toenails. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136:490-3.
63) Summerbell RC, Kane J, Krajden S. Onychomycosis, tinea pedis and tinea manum caused by non-dermatophytic filamentous fungi. Mycoses 1989; 32:609-19.
64) Moore MK. Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum infections in London, England. J Med Vet Mycol 1986; 24:219-30.
65) Allison VY, Hay RJ, Campbell CK. Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum infections in Tobago. Br J Dermatol 1984; 111:371-2.
66) Campbell CK, Johnson EM, Warnook DW. Nail infection caused by Onychocola canadiensis:report of the first four British cases. J Vet Mycol 1997; 35:423-5.
67) Borrelli D. Botryodiploidia theobromae agente de onicomicosis podal. Rev Iberoam Micol 1995; 12:2-5.
68) Matsunoto T, Matsuda T, Padhye AA, Standard PG, Ajello L. Fungal melanonychia:ungueal phaeohyphomycosis caused by Wangiella dermatitidis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1992; 17:83-6.
69) Basmadjián Y, Acuña A, de Mello A, Mañana R, Sanabria D. Onicomicosis por mohos del género Scopulariopsis. Una patología no tan infrecuente. Rev Urug Patol Clin 2002; 35:32.
70) Roberts DT, Evans EG, Allen BR. Fungal Infection of the Nail. 2nd ed. London:Mosby-Wolfe Medical Communications, 1998:88 p.
71) Zaias N, Glick B, Rebell G. Diagnosing and treating onychomycosis. J Fam Pract 1996; 42:513-8.
72) Dompmartin D, Dompmartin A, Deluol AM, Grosshans E, Coulaud JP. Onychomycosis and AIDS:clinical and laboratory findings in 62 patients. Int J Dermatol 1990; 29:337-9.
73) Elewski BE. Diagnostic techniques for confirming onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol 1996; 35(3):6-9.
74) Ballesté R, Salvatella R. Manual de toma de muestras para estudio microbiológico, parasitológico y micológico. PHAO/OMS, 2002. [En prensa].
75) Elewski BE, Hay RJ. Update on the management of onychomycosis:highlights of the Third Annual International Summit on Cutaneous Antifungal Therapy. Clin Infec Dis 1996; 23(2):305-13.
76) English MP. Nails and fungi.Br J Dermatol 1976; 94:697-701.
77) Gupta AK, Cooper EA, Mac Donald P, Summerbell RC. Utility of inoculum counting (Walshe and English Criteria) in clinical diagnosis of onychomycosis caused by nondermatophytic filamentous fungi. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39(6):2115-21.
78) Kwon-Chung KJ, Benett JE. Medical Mycology. Philadelphia:Lea & Febiger, 1992.
79) Silva-Lacaz C, Porto E, Heins-Vaccari EM, Takahashi de Melo M. Guia para identificacao Fungos, Actinomicetos, Algas de interesse medico, Sao Paulo:Sarvier, 1998.
80) Sanglard D, Odds FC. Resistance of Candida species to antifungal agents:molecular mechanisms and clinical consequences. Lancet Infect Dis 2002; 2:73-85.
81) Roberts DT, Evans EG. Subungueal dermatophytoma complicating dermatophyte onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1998; 138:189-90.
82) Baran R, Doncker P. Lateral edge nail involvement indicates for treating onychomycosis with the new systemic antifungals. Acta Dermato Venereol 1996; 76:82-3.
83) Hay RJ. The future of onychomycosis therapy may involve a combination of approaches. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):3-8.
84) Llambrich A, Lecha M. Tratamiento actual de las onicomicosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 2002; 19:127-9.
85) Niewert M, Korting HC. Management of onychomycosis. Drugs 1999; 58:283-96.
86) Zaug M. Amorolfine nail lacquer:clinical experience in onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol Venereol 1995; 4(1):23-30.
87) Gupta AK, Fleckman P, Baran R. Ciclopirox nail lacquer topical solution 8% in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 43(4):70-80.
88) Dhanaraju MD, Kurmaran KS, Baskaran T, Moorthy MS. Enhancement of bioavailability of griseofulvin by its complexation with beta-cyclodextrin. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1998; 24:583-7.
89) Lewis JH, Zimmerman HJ, Benson GD, Isaac G. Hepatic injury associated with ketoconazole therapy:analysis of 33 cases. Gastroenterology 1984; 86:503-13.
90) Clayton YM. Relevance of broad-spectrum and fungicidal activity of antifungals in the treatment of dermatomycoses. Br J Dermatol 1994; 30(43):1317-28.
91) Kats HL. Drugs interactions of the newer oral antifungals agents. B J Dermatol 1999; 141(56):26-32.
92) Brodell RT, Elewski BE. Clinical peark antifungal drugs and drugs interactions. J Acad Dermatol 1995; 33:259-60.
93) Odom RB, Aly R, Scher RK. A multicenter placebo-controlled double-blind study of intermittent therapy with itraconazole for the treatment of onychomycosis of the fingernail. J Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:231-5.
94) Heikkila H, Stubb S. Long-term results of patients with onychomycosis treated with itraconazole. Acta Derm Venereol 1997; 77:70-1.
95) Brammer KW, Farrow PR, Faulkner JK. Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of fluconazole in humans. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12:126-38.
96) Drake L, Babel D, Stewart DM. Once weekly fluconazole (150, 300 or 450 mg) in the treatment of distal subungueal onychomycosis of the fingernail. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38:87-94.
97) Gupta AK, Scher RK, Rich P. Fluconazole for the treatment of onychomycosis:an update. Int J Dermatol 1998; 37:815-20.
98) Petranyi G, Ryder NS, Stuetz A. Allylamine derivates:new class of synthetic antifungal agents inhibiting fungal squalene epoxidase . Science 1984; 224:1239-41.
99) Goodfield MJ, Andrew L, Evans EG. Short term treatment of dermatophyte onychomycosis with terbinafine. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126(39):33-5.
100) De Backer M, De Vroey C, Lesafree E. Twelve weeks of continuous oral therapy for toenail onychomycosis caused by dermatophytes:a double-blind trial of terbinafine 250 mg/dia versus itraconazol 200 mg/dia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38(5 Pt3):S57-63.
101) Gupta AK, Lynde CW, Konnlkov N. Single-blind, randomized, prospective study of sequential itraconazole and terbinafine pulse compared with terbinafine pulse for the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol 2001; 44:485-91.
102) Evans EG, Sigurgeirsson B. Double blind, randomised study of continuous terbinafine compared with intermittent itraconazole in treatment of toenail onychomycosis. BMJ 1999; 318:1031-5.
103) Evans EG. The rationale for combination therapy. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):9-13.
104) Arenas R, Fernández G, Domínguez L. Onychomycosis treated with itraconazole or griseofulvine alone with and whithout a topical antimicotic or keratolytic agent. Int J dermatol 1991; 30:586-9.
105) Baran R, Feulhade M, Datry A. A randomised trial of amorolfine 5% solution nail lacquer combined with oral terbinafine compared with oral terbinafine alone in treatment of dermatophytic toenail affecting the matrix region. Br J Dermatol 2000; 142:1177-83.
106) Lecha M. Amorolfine and itraconazole combination for severe toenail onychomycosis:results of an open randomised trial in Spain. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):21-6.
2) Deenning DW, Evans EG, Kibbler CC, Richardson MD, Roberts MM, Rogers TR, et al. Fortnigthly Review:Fungal nail disease:a guide to good practice, report of a Working Group of the British Society for Medical Mycology. BMJ 1995; 311:1277-81.
3) Rippon JW. Dermatofitosis y dermatomicosis. In:Rippon JW, ed. Tratado de Micología Médica, ed. México:Interamericana, 1990:186-298.
4) Gentles JC, Evans EG. Infection of the feet and nails with Hendersonula toruloidea. Sabouraudia 1970; 8:72-5.
5) Campbell CK, Mulder JL. Skin and nail infection by Scytalidium hyalinum. Sabouraudia 1977; 15(2):161-6.
6) Torres-Rodríguez JM. Actualización del diagnóstico micológico de las dermatomicosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 1986; 3(1):9-17.
7) Rubio-Calvo D, Rezusta-López A, Grasa-Jordan MP. Micopatología ungueal. Estudio micológico de las micosis y tiña unguium. Rev Iberoam Micol 1988; 5:90-9.
8) Gupta AK, Lambert J. Pharmaeconomic analysis of the new antifungal agents used to treat toenail onychomycosis in the USA. Int J Dermatol 1999; 38(2):53-64.
9) Joish VN, Armstrong EP. Newer drugs and overall costs of treating onychomycosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 2002; 19:130-2.
10) Lubeck DP. Measuring health-related quality of life in onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38(5):64-8.
11) Scher RK. Onychomycosis is more than a cosmetic problem. Br J Dermatol 1994; 130(43):15.
12) Sais G, Jucgla A, Peyri J. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in Spain:a cross-septional study. Br J Dermatol 1995; 132:758-61.
13) Roberts DT. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in the United Kingdom:Results of an omnibus survey. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126 (39):23-7.
14) Heikkila H, Stubb S. The prevalence of onychomycosis in Finland. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133:699-703.
15) Elewski BE, Charif MA. Prevalence of onychomycosis in patients attempting a dermatology clinic in northeastern Ohio for other conditions. Arch Dermatol 1997; 133:1772-3.
16) Gupta AK, Jain HC, Lynde CW, Watteel GN, Summerbell RC. Prevalence and epidemiology of unsuspected onychomycosis in patients visiting dermatologist offices in Ontario, Canada a multicenter survey of 2001 patients. Int J Dermatol 1997; 36:783-7.
17) Gupta AK, Sibbald G, Lynde CW. Onycomychosis in childrens:Prevalence and treatment strategies. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:395-402.
18) Gupta AK, Chang P, Del Rosso JQ. Onichomycosis in childrens:prevalence and management. Pediatr Dermatol 1998; 15:464-71.
19) Ploysangam T, Lucky AW. Childhood white superficial onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum:Report of seven cases and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:29-32.
20) Rosseew D. Achllies foot screening project:preliminary results of patients screening by dermatologists. J Eur Acad Dermatol 1999; 12:6-9.
21) Haneke E. Fungal infections of the nail. Semin Dermatol 1991; 10:41-53.
22) Williams HC. The epidemiology of onychomycosis in Britain. Br J Dermatol 1993; 129:101-9.
23) Perea S, Ramos MJ, Garau M, González A, Noriega A, Del Palacio A. Prevalence and risk factors of tinea unguium and tinea pedis in the general population in Spain. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38(9):3226-30.
24) Bonasse J, Asconegui F, Conti-Díaz I. Estado actual de las dermatofitosis en Uruguay. Rev Arg Micol 1982; 5(2):29-31.
25) Ballesté R, Gezuele E, Veiga R. Frecuencia de dermatofitosis en Montevideo. Congreso de la Federación Latinoamericana de Parasitología, 10. Libro de resúmenes. Montevideo:FLAP, 1991:89.
26) Cabrera R, Bonasse J, Fazzio S, Viola M, Sapriza M. Micosis superficiales. Revisión. Congreso de la Federación Latinoamericana de Parasitología, 10. Libro de resúmenes. Montevideo:FLAP, 1991:94.
27) Ballesté R, Fernández N, Mousqués N, Xavier B, Arteta Z, Mernes M, et al. Dermatofitosis en población asistida en el Instituto de Higiene. Rev Med Uruguay 2000; 16:232-42.
28) Conti-Díaz I. Estudio micológico de 85 casos de onicopatías. An Fac Med Montevideo 1964; 49(5-6):535-40.
29) Gentles JC, Evans EG. Foot infections in swimming baths. BMJ 1973; 3:260-2.
30) English MP, Gibson MD. Studies in the epidemiology of tinea pedis-I. Tinea pedis in school children. BMJ 1959; i:1442-6.
31) English MP, Wethered RR, Duncan EH. Studies in the epidemiology tinea pedis-VIII. Fungal infection in a long stay hospital. BMJ 1967; iii:136-9.
32) Cribier B, Leiva-Mena M, Rey D. Nail changes in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol 1998; 134:1216-20.
33) Daniel CR, Norton NA, Scher RK. The spectrum of nail disease in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992; 27:93-7.
34) Arrese JE, Pierard Franchimond C, Pierard GE. Fatal hyphomycosis following Fusarium onychomycosis in an immunocompromised patient. Am J Dermatopathol 1996; 18:196-8.
35) Hay RJ. Fungal skyn infectionts. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:1065-7.
36) Summerbell RC. Epidemiology and ecology of onychomycosis. Dermatology 1997; 194(1):32-6.
37) Midgley G, Moore MK, Cook JC, Phan QG. Mycology of nail disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 31:68-74.
38) Nichols DSH, Midgley G. Onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton equinum. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989; 14:464-5.
39) Piraccini BM, Morelli R, Stinchi C, Tosti A. Proximal subungueal onychomycosis due to Microsporum canis. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134:175-7.
40) Mazon A, Salvo S, Vives R, Valcayo A, Sabalza MA. Etiologic and epidemiologic study of dermatomycoses in Navarra (Spain). Rev Iberoam Micol 1997; 14:65-8.
41) Elewski BE. Onychomycosis:pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998; 11(3):415-29.
42) Hazen K. New and emerging yeast pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995; 8(4):462-78.
43) Weems. Candida parasilopsis. Epidemiology, patogenicity, clinical manifestations and antimicrobial suceptibility. Clin Inf Dis 1993; 14:756-66.
44) Crozier WJ. Two cases of onychomycosis due to Candida zeylanoides. Aust J Dermatol 1993; 35:311-3.
45) Gargeya IB, Pruitt WR, Meyer SA, Aherarm DG. Candida haemulonii from clinical specimens in USA. J Med Vet Mycol 1991; 29:335-8.
46) Daniel CR, Elewski BE. Candida as a nail pathogen in healty patients. J MSMA 1995; 36(11):379-81.
47) Gentili L, Bouchara JP, Cimon B, Chabasse D. Candida ciferrii:clinical and microbiological features of an emerging pathogen. Mycoses 1991; 34:125-8.
48) Hoog GS de, Guarro J, Gene J, Figueras MJ. Atlas of Clinical Fungi. 2a. ed. The Netherlands-Spain:CBS/Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 2000.
49) D'Antonio D, Romano F, Iacone A, Violante B, Fazii P, Pontieri E, et al. Onychomycosis caused by Blastoschizomyces capitatus. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37(9):2927-30.
50) Mackinnon JE, Artagaveytia-Allende RC. Aspectos actuales de las moniliasis. An Fac Med Montevideo 1956; 41:275-92.
51) Calegari L, Conti-Díaz I, Civila E. Onicolisis por levaduras. Estudio micológico. Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Microbiologia, 9. Libro de resúmenes. Sao Paulo:ALAM-SBM, 1983:213.
52) Ashbee RH, Evans EG. Inmunology of disease associated with Malassezia species. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15(1):21-57.
53) Civila E, Conti-Díaz I, Vignale R, Calegari L. Onixis por Malassezia (Pityrosporum) ovalis. Med Cut Ibero Lat Am 1982; 10:343-6.
54) Crozier WJ, Wise kA. Onychomycosis due to Pityrosporum. Austral J Dermatol 1993; 34:109-12.
55) Silva V, Moreno GA, Zaror L, De Oliveira E, Fischman O. Isolation of Malassezia furfur from patient with onychomycosis. J Med Vet Micol 1997; 35:73-4.
56) Escobar Ml, Carmona-Fonseca J, Santamaria L. Onicomicosis por Malassezia. Rev Iberoam Micol 1999; 16:225-9.
57) Ellis DH, Marley JE, Watson AB, Williams TG. Significance of non-dermatophyte moulds and yeast in onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1994; 30(43):7-8.
58) Midgley G, Moore MK. Nail infections. Dermatol Clin 1996; 14:41-9.
59) Greer DL. Evolving role of nondermathophytes in onychomycosis. Int J Dermatol 1995; 34:521-4.
60) Oyeka CA, Gugnani HC. Keratin degradation by Scytalidium species and Fusarium solani. Mycoses 1997; 41:73-6.
61) Torres-Rodríguez JM, Balaguer-Meler J, Reixach A. Onychomycosis due to a fungus of the Aspergillus versicolor group. Mycoses 1988; 31:579-83.
62) Ellis DH, Watson AB, Marley JE, Williams TG. Non dermathpytes in onychomycosis of the toenails. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136:490-3.
63) Summerbell RC, Kane J, Krajden S. Onychomycosis, tinea pedis and tinea manum caused by non-dermatophytic filamentous fungi. Mycoses 1989; 32:609-19.
64) Moore MK. Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum infections in London, England. J Med Vet Mycol 1986; 24:219-30.
65) Allison VY, Hay RJ, Campbell CK. Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum infections in Tobago. Br J Dermatol 1984; 111:371-2.
66) Campbell CK, Johnson EM, Warnook DW. Nail infection caused by Onychocola canadiensis:report of the first four British cases. J Vet Mycol 1997; 35:423-5.
67) Borrelli D. Botryodiploidia theobromae agente de onicomicosis podal. Rev Iberoam Micol 1995; 12:2-5.
68) Matsunoto T, Matsuda T, Padhye AA, Standard PG, Ajello L. Fungal melanonychia:ungueal phaeohyphomycosis caused by Wangiella dermatitidis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1992; 17:83-6.
69) Basmadjián Y, Acuña A, de Mello A, Mañana R, Sanabria D. Onicomicosis por mohos del género Scopulariopsis. Una patología no tan infrecuente. Rev Urug Patol Clin 2002; 35:32.
70) Roberts DT, Evans EG, Allen BR. Fungal Infection of the Nail. 2nd ed. London:Mosby-Wolfe Medical Communications, 1998:88 p.
71) Zaias N, Glick B, Rebell G. Diagnosing and treating onychomycosis. J Fam Pract 1996; 42:513-8.
72) Dompmartin D, Dompmartin A, Deluol AM, Grosshans E, Coulaud JP. Onychomycosis and AIDS:clinical and laboratory findings in 62 patients. Int J Dermatol 1990; 29:337-9.
73) Elewski BE. Diagnostic techniques for confirming onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol 1996; 35(3):6-9.
74) Ballesté R, Salvatella R. Manual de toma de muestras para estudio microbiológico, parasitológico y micológico. PHAO/OMS, 2002. [En prensa].
75) Elewski BE, Hay RJ. Update on the management of onychomycosis:highlights of the Third Annual International Summit on Cutaneous Antifungal Therapy. Clin Infec Dis 1996; 23(2):305-13.
76) English MP. Nails and fungi.Br J Dermatol 1976; 94:697-701.
77) Gupta AK, Cooper EA, Mac Donald P, Summerbell RC. Utility of inoculum counting (Walshe and English Criteria) in clinical diagnosis of onychomycosis caused by nondermatophytic filamentous fungi. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39(6):2115-21.
78) Kwon-Chung KJ, Benett JE. Medical Mycology. Philadelphia:Lea & Febiger, 1992.
79) Silva-Lacaz C, Porto E, Heins-Vaccari EM, Takahashi de Melo M. Guia para identificacao Fungos, Actinomicetos, Algas de interesse medico, Sao Paulo:Sarvier, 1998.
80) Sanglard D, Odds FC. Resistance of Candida species to antifungal agents:molecular mechanisms and clinical consequences. Lancet Infect Dis 2002; 2:73-85.
81) Roberts DT, Evans EG. Subungueal dermatophytoma complicating dermatophyte onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1998; 138:189-90.
82) Baran R, Doncker P. Lateral edge nail involvement indicates for treating onychomycosis with the new systemic antifungals. Acta Dermato Venereol 1996; 76:82-3.
83) Hay RJ. The future of onychomycosis therapy may involve a combination of approaches. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):3-8.
84) Llambrich A, Lecha M. Tratamiento actual de las onicomicosis. Rev Iberoam Micol 2002; 19:127-9.
85) Niewert M, Korting HC. Management of onychomycosis. Drugs 1999; 58:283-96.
86) Zaug M. Amorolfine nail lacquer:clinical experience in onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol Venereol 1995; 4(1):23-30.
87) Gupta AK, Fleckman P, Baran R. Ciclopirox nail lacquer topical solution 8% in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 43(4):70-80.
88) Dhanaraju MD, Kurmaran KS, Baskaran T, Moorthy MS. Enhancement of bioavailability of griseofulvin by its complexation with beta-cyclodextrin. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1998; 24:583-7.
89) Lewis JH, Zimmerman HJ, Benson GD, Isaac G. Hepatic injury associated with ketoconazole therapy:analysis of 33 cases. Gastroenterology 1984; 86:503-13.
90) Clayton YM. Relevance of broad-spectrum and fungicidal activity of antifungals in the treatment of dermatomycoses. Br J Dermatol 1994; 30(43):1317-28.
91) Kats HL. Drugs interactions of the newer oral antifungals agents. B J Dermatol 1999; 141(56):26-32.
92) Brodell RT, Elewski BE. Clinical peark antifungal drugs and drugs interactions. J Acad Dermatol 1995; 33:259-60.
93) Odom RB, Aly R, Scher RK. A multicenter placebo-controlled double-blind study of intermittent therapy with itraconazole for the treatment of onychomycosis of the fingernail. J Acad Dermatol 1997; 36:231-5.
94) Heikkila H, Stubb S. Long-term results of patients with onychomycosis treated with itraconazole. Acta Derm Venereol 1997; 77:70-1.
95) Brammer KW, Farrow PR, Faulkner JK. Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of fluconazole in humans. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12:126-38.
96) Drake L, Babel D, Stewart DM. Once weekly fluconazole (150, 300 or 450 mg) in the treatment of distal subungueal onychomycosis of the fingernail. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38:87-94.
97) Gupta AK, Scher RK, Rich P. Fluconazole for the treatment of onychomycosis:an update. Int J Dermatol 1998; 37:815-20.
98) Petranyi G, Ryder NS, Stuetz A. Allylamine derivates:new class of synthetic antifungal agents inhibiting fungal squalene epoxidase . Science 1984; 224:1239-41.
99) Goodfield MJ, Andrew L, Evans EG. Short term treatment of dermatophyte onychomycosis with terbinafine. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126(39):33-5.
100) De Backer M, De Vroey C, Lesafree E. Twelve weeks of continuous oral therapy for toenail onychomycosis caused by dermatophytes:a double-blind trial of terbinafine 250 mg/dia versus itraconazol 200 mg/dia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998; 38(5 Pt3):S57-63.
101) Gupta AK, Lynde CW, Konnlkov N. Single-blind, randomized, prospective study of sequential itraconazole and terbinafine pulse compared with terbinafine pulse for the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J Acad Dermatol 2001; 44:485-91.
102) Evans EG, Sigurgeirsson B. Double blind, randomised study of continuous terbinafine compared with intermittent itraconazole in treatment of toenail onychomycosis. BMJ 1999; 318:1031-5.
103) Evans EG. The rationale for combination therapy. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):9-13.
104) Arenas R, Fernández G, Domínguez L. Onychomycosis treated with itraconazole or griseofulvine alone with and whithout a topical antimicotic or keratolytic agent. Int J dermatol 1991; 30:586-9.
105) Baran R, Feulhade M, Datry A. A randomised trial of amorolfine 5% solution nail lacquer combined with oral terbinafine compared with oral terbinafine alone in treatment of dermatophytic toenail affecting the matrix region. Br J Dermatol 2000; 142:1177-83.
106) Lecha M. Amorolfine and itraconazole combination for severe toenail onychomycosis:results of an open randomised trial in Spain. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145(60):21-6.
Downloads
Published
2003-08-31
How to Cite
1.
Ballesté R, Mousqués N, Gezuele E. Onychomycosis: Review. Rev. Méd. Urug. [Internet]. 2003 Aug. 31 [cited 2024 Oct. 18];19(2):93-106. Available from: https://revista.rmu.org.uy/index.php/rmu/article/view/938
Issue
Section
Review or Update and Updates
