Incidence and causes of primary and secondary insomnia
Keywords:
DISORDERS OF SLEEP INITIATION AND MAINTENANCE, SLEEP DISORDERS, INCIDENCEAbstract
Several epidemiologic studies carried out in Europe and North America show that sleep disorders may be considered as a common condition. Prevalence is higher in women and elder people. Around 10% to 19% of patients with insomnia remark its chronic condition. Sleep disorders in elderly patiens are associated with chronic afection, that is to say they are non lifetime dependent.
Primary chronic insomnia is associated with emotional factors or stress, that might prevent sleep. Primary insomnia do neither depend on medical nor psychiatric condition.
Secondary chronic insomnia may depend on an associated sleep disorder, psychiatric or medical condition, drugs and drugdependence. More frequent causes of insomnia are psychiatric disorders (anxiety, depression), neurologic disorders (Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, epilepsy, stroke, migraine), medical disorders (cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, rheumatic, neoplasic). Sleep disorders have also been described during pregnancy and menopause. Many medical drugs (metilxantine, antidepressive and antihypertensive agents, antiepileptic durgs, corticosteroids) and nicotine may sometimes produce severe insomnia.
References
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3) Hohagen F, Rink K, Käppler C, Schramm E, Riemann D, Weyerer S, et al. Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in general practice. A longitudinal study. Eur Arch Psychiat Clin Neurosci 1993; 242: 329-36.
4) American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, revised, 3a ed. Washington: American Psychiatric, 1987.
5) Weyerer S, Dilling U. Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in the Community: Results from the upper Bavarian Field Study. Sleep 1991; 14: 392-8.
6) Balter MB, Uhlenhuth ER. New epidemiologic findings about insomnia and its treatment. J Clin Psychiat 1992; 53 (Suppl 12): 34-9.
7) Lugaresi E, Cirignotta F, Zucconi M, Mondini S, Lenzi PL, Coccagna G. Good and poor sleepers: an epidemiological survey of the San Marino population. In: Guilleminault C, Lugaresi E. eds. Sleep/wake disorders: natural history, epidemiology, and long-term evolution. New York: Raven, 1983: 1-12.
8) Simon GE, VonKorff M. Prevalence, burden, and treatment of insomnia in primary care. Am J Psychiat 1997; 154: 1417-23.
9) Shochat T, Umphress J, Israel AG, Ancoli-Israel S. Insomnia in primary care patients. Sleep 1999; 22 (Suppl 2): 359-65.
10) Foley DJ, Monjan AA, Brown SL, Simonsick EM, Wallace RB, Blazer DG. Sleep complaints among elderly persons: An epidemiologic study of three communities. Sleep 1995; 18: 425-32.
11) Cornoni-Huntley JC, Ostfeld AM, Taylor JO, Wallace RB, Blazer D, Berkman LF, et al. Established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly: study design and methodology. Aging Clin Exp Res 1993; 5: 27-37.
12) Foley DJ, Monjan A, Simonsick EM, Wallace RB, Blazer DG. Incidence and remission of insomnia among elderly adults: A epidemiologic study of 6.800 persons over three years. Sleep 1999; 22 (Suppl 2): 366-72.
13) American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4a ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric, 1994.
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15) American Sleep Disorders Association. International classification of sleep disorders, revised: Diagnostic and coding manual. Rochester, Minnesota: American Sleep Disorders Association, 1997.
16) Bonnet MH, Arand DL. Hyperarousal and insomnia. Sleep Med Rev 1997; 1: 87-108.
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18) Monti JM, Monti D. Sleep disturbance in generalized anxiety disorder and its treatment. Sleep Med Rev 2000; 4: 263-76.
19) Mellman TA, Uhde TW. Electroencephalographic sleep in panic disorder. a focus on sleep-related panic attacks. Arch Gen Psychiat 1989; 46: 178-84.
20) Kerkhofs M. EEG sleep in non-affective psychiatric disorders. Sleep Med Rev 1997; 1: 109-18.
21) Mellman TA, Davis CG. Combat-related flashbacks in posttraumatic stress disorder: phenomenology and similarity to panic attacks. J Clin Psychiat 1985; 46: 379-82.
22) Benson KL, Zarcone VP. Schizophrenia. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. Eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3a ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000: 1159-67.
23) Bliwise DL. Dementia. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. Eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3a ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000: 1058-71.
24) Prinz PN, Vitaliano P, Vitiello MV, Bokan J, Raskind M, Perkind E, et al. Sleep, EEG and mental functions changes in mild, moderate and severe senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. Neurobiol Aging 1982; 3: 361-70.
25) Vitiello MV, Prinz PN, Williams DE, Frommlet MS, Ries RK. Sleep disturbances in patients with mild-stage Alzheimer’s disease. J Gerontol 1990; 45: M131-M138.
26) McCurry SM, Reynolds CF, Ancoli-Israel S, Teri L, Vitiello MV. Treatment of sleep disturbance in Alzheimer’s disease. Sleep Med Rev 2000; 4: 603-28.
27) Partinen M. Sleep disorders related to Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol 1997; 244 (Suppl 1): S3-S6.
28) Tandberg E, Larsen JP, Karlsen K. A community-based study of sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disorders 1998; 13: 895-9.
29) Chokroverty S. Sleep, breathing, and neurologic disorders. In: Chokroverty S, Daroff RB. Eds. Sleep Disorders Medicine Basic Science, Technical Considerations, and Clinical Aspects. 2a ed. Boston: Butterworth, 1999 (Chapt. 27).
30) Schäffer J, Greulich A. Effects of parkinsonian medication on sleep. J Neurol 2000; 247 (Suppl 4): 24-7.
31) Touchon J, Baldy-Moulinier M, Billiard M, Besset A, Cadilhac J. Sleep organization and epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1991; (Suppl 2): 73-81.
32) Sammaritano M, Sherwin A. Effect of anticonvulsants on sleep. Neurology 2000; 54 (Suppl 1): 16-24.
33) Shouse MN, Mahowald MW. Epilepsy and sleep disorders. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. Eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3a ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000: 707-23.
34) Shouse MN, da Silva AM, Sammaritano M. Circadian rhythm, sleep and epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 1996, 13: 32-50.
35) Bassetti C, Chervin R. Cerebrovascular diseases. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. Eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3a ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000: 1072-86.
36) Deegan PC, McNicholas WT. Predictive value of clinical features for the obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir J 1996; 9:117-24.
37) Anch M, Orr WC, Karacan I. Stress, cardiac activity and sleep. J Human Stress 1976; 2: 15-24.
38) Kaye J, Kaye K, Modow L. Sleep patterns in patients with cancer and patients with cardiac disease. J Psychol 1983; 114: 107-13.
39) Murao S, Hamuri K, Katayama S. All-night polygraphic studies of nocturnal angina pectoris. Jap Heart J 1972; 13: 295-303.
40) Schafer H, Koehler U, Ploch T, Peter JH. Sleep-related myocardial ischemia and sleep structure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and coronary artery disease. Chest 1997; 111: 387-93.
41) Hyyppä MT, Kronholm E. Quality of sleep and chronic illness. J Clin Epidemiol 1989; 42: 633-8.
42) Kales A, Beall GN, Bajor GF, Jacobsen A, Kales JD. Sleep studies in asthmatic adults: relationship of attacks to sleep stage and time of night. J Allergy 1968; 41: 164-73.
43) McNicholas WT. Impact of sleep in respiratory failure. Eur Respirat J 1997; 10: 920-33.
44) Janson C, Gislason T, Boman G, Hetta J, Roos BE. Sleep disturbances in patients with asthma. Respirat Med 1990; 84: 37-42.
45) Perez-Padilla RR, West P, Letzman M. Breathing during sleep in patients with intersticial lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132: 224-31.
46) Orr WC. Gastrointestinal disorders. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC Eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3a ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000: 1112-22.
47) Kales A, Heuser G, Jacobson A, Kales JD, Hanley J, Zweizig JR, et al. All-night sleep studies in hypothyroid patients before and after treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1967; 27: 1593-9.
48) Dunleavy DLF, Oswald I, Brown P, Strong JA. Hyperthyroidism, sleep and growth hormone. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 1974; 36: 259-63.
49) Savard J, Morin CM. Insomnia in the context of cancer: A review of a neglected problem. Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 895-908.
50) Pollmächer T, Holsboer F. Sleep-wake disturbances in HIV-infected patients – A potential model of the interactions between sleep and the immune system. Sleep Res Soc Bull 1996; 2: 37-42.
51) Darko DF, McCutchan JA, Kripke DF, Gillin J, Golshan S. Fatigue, sleep disturbance, disability, and indices of progression of HIV infection. Am J Psychiat 1992; 149: 514-20.
52) Darko DF, Mitler MM, Henriksen SJ. Lentiviral infection, immune response peptides and sleep. Ad Neuroimmunol 1995; 5: 57-77.
53) Drewes AM, Jennum P, Andreasen A, Sjøl A, Nielsen KD. Self-reported sleep disturbances and daytime complaints in women with fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis. J Musculoeskel Pain 1994; 2: 15-31.
54) Mahowald MW, Mahowald ML, Bundlie SR, Ytterberg SR. Sleep fragmentation in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthr Rheumatol 1989; 32: 974-83.
55) Moldofsky H, Lue FA, Smythe HA. Alpha EEG sleep and morning symptoms in rheumathoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1983; 10: 373-9.
56) Moldofsky H, Lue FA, Saskin P. Sleep and morning pain in primary osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 1987; 14: 124-8.
57) Pongratz DE, Sievers M. Fibromyalgia – symptom and diagnosis: A definition of the position. Scand J Rheumatol 2000; 29 (Suppl 113): 3-7.
58) Driver HS, Derk-Jan D, Werth E, Biedermann K, Borbély A. Sleep and the sleep electroencephalogram across the menstrual cycle in young healthy women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 728-35.
59) Santiago JR, Nodello MS, Kinzler W, Santiago TV. Sleep and sleep disorders in pregnancy. Annals Intern Med 2001; 134: 396-408.
60) Manber R, Armitage R. Sex, steroids and sleep: a review. Sleep 1999; 22: 540-55.
61) Polo-Kantola P, Saaresranta T, Polo O. Aetiology and treatment of sleep disturbances during perimenopause and postmenopause. CNS Drugs 2001; 15: 445- 52.
62) Polo-Kantola P, Erkkola R, Helenins H, Irjala K, Polo O. When does estrogen replacement therapy improve sleep quality? Am J Obstetr Gynecol 1998; 178: 1002-9.
63) Serafin WE. Drugs used in the treatment of asthma. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE. Eds. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9a ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996: 659-82.
64) Kay D, Blackburn AB, Buckingham JA, Karacan I. Human pharmacology of sleep. In: Williams RL, Karacan I Eds. Pharmacology of Sleep. New York: John Wiley, 1976: 63-210.
65) Alford C, Bhatti J, Leigh T, Jamieson A, Hindmarch I. Caffeine-induced sleep disruption: Effects on waking the following day and its reversal with an hypnotic. Human Psychopharmacol 1996; 11: 185-98.
66) Fitzpatrick MF, Engelman HM, Boellert F, McHardy R, Shapiro CM, Deary IJ, et al. Effect of therapeutic theophylline levels on the sleep quality and daytime cognitive performance of normal subjects. Am Rev Repirat Dis 1992; 145: 1355-8.
67) Kaplan J, Fredrickson PA, Renaux SA, O’Brien PC. Theophylline effect on sleep in normal subjects. Chest 1993; 103: 193-5.
68) Richardt D, Driver HS. An evaluative study of the short-term effects of one-daily, sustained-release theophylline on sleep in nocturnal asthmatics. SA Med J 1996; 86: 803-4.
69) Javaheri S, Parker TJ, Wexler L, Liming JD, Lindower P, Roselle GA. Effect of theophylline on sleep-disordered breathing in heart failure. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 562-7.
70) Soldatos CR, Kales JD, Scharf MB, Bixler EO, Kales A. Cigarette smoking associated with sleep difficulty. Science 1980; 207: 551-3.
71) Gillin JC, Lardon M, Ruiz C, Golshan S, Salín-Pacual R. Dose-dependent effects of transdermal nicotine on early morning awakening and rapid eye movement sleep time in nonsmoking normal volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1994; 14: 264-7.
72) Davila DG, Hurt RD, Offord KP, Harris CD, Shepard JW. Acute effects of transdermal nicotine on sleep architecture, snoring, and sleep-disordered breathing in nonsmokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 469-74.
73) Kupfer DJ. Pathophysiology and management of insomnia during depression. Ann Clin Psychiatr 1999; 11: 267-76.
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2002-05-31
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Monti JM. Incidence and causes of primary and secondary insomnia. Rev. Méd. Urug. [Internet]. 2002 May 31 [cited 2024 Nov. 24];18(1):14-26. Available from: https://revista.rmu.org.uy/index.php/rmu/article/view/998
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